nigeria resistance to colonial rule

From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and protectorate was presided over by a proconsul, who was entitled the Governor-General of Nigeria. Many changes accompanied British rule: Western education, the English language, and Christianity spread during the period; new forms of money, transportation, and communication were developed; and the Nigerian economy became based on the export of cash crops. [11] In 1891, the African Banking Corporation founded the Bank of British West Africa in Lagos.[33]. Instead, acts of resistance were usually prompted by some new colonial policy - like taking away land, or forcing people to pay a tax, or forcing them to work for free on roads or railways. [29] His servant, Richard Lander, and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1921. British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. Some indigenous peoples, such as those in the Americas, were forced to move to reservations or killed outright by invading European colonizers. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. Two tiers of government emerged, central and local. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. In 1886, Taubman secured a royal charter and his company became the Royal Niger Company. Osoba and Fajana pointed . Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. As a historical event, anticolonialism means the struggle against imperial rule in colonized countries, mostly during the first half of the twentieth century. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. [73] In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation. Play off ethnic and social divisions . Like in other countries under imperialist rule, colonialism in Nigeria resulted in numerous positive and negative impacts. Davies and Nnamdi Azikiwe. [61], The task of unification was achieved on the eve of World War I. In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to Muslim Arab slave traders. PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. These policies met with ongoing resistance. [31], In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".[32]. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, Heinrich Barth, who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at Lancaster House in London in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by The Rt. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. To be sure, there were widespread resistances against colonial rule, which include the 'Abd al-Qadir led resistance against the French in Algeria, the Asante King (Prempeh I) led revolt against British colonialists in Ghana, the Maji Maji revolt in Tanganyika, the Ndebele rebellions in Rhodasia, the Ijebu Kingdom and the Opobo resistances in . Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary. European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the cowrie, which was already valued locally. Nigeria: A Country Study. [8] British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River[11]. At the urging of Governor Frederick Lugard, the two territories were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, while maintaining considerable regional autonomy among the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos). Strategic Theory, Dynamics, Methods and Movements ), contains accounts of the role of nonviolent action in anti-colonial struggles in Africa - Algeria, Ghana, Mozambique, and Zambia - and also in Bangladesh. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. The officers of the RWAFF were British. resistance and successfully imposed colonial rule should attest to the point that African military resistance was ineffectual. [43][44] The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy. [73] An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister H. H. Asquith's Liberal government and subsequent war coalition favored allowing international free trade. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas. The risings in the midwest of Nigeria and the Niger delta during the early stages of the war cannot be understood except in the context of falling prices for palm products, and the drop in trade due to the exclusion of the . Armed resistance decreased in the 1920s but protest continued, "characterised by civil rights and civil . Alan Lennox-Boyd, M.P., the British Secretary of State for the Colonies. British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. In her . In 1920, portions of former German Cameroon were mandated to Britain by the League of Nations and were administered as part of Nigeria. Colonial Nigeria was ruled by the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1960 when Nigeria achieved independence. what were negative effects of colonial rule in african continent. [76], The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling 250,000 or more each year. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". Nigeria became an independent state on the October 1, 1960 after being a British colony for over 40 years. Frederick Lugard, who assumed the position of high commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria in 1900, often has been regarded as the model British colonial administrator. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. [8], Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed Crown Colony government on much of the area of West Africa which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both autocratic and bureaucratic. The British Culture in Nigeria. Nigeria Table of Contents. The impact of colonialism in Nigeria could be discussed under political, economic, social, educational and religious aspects. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. The first missions were opened by the Church of England's Church Missionary Society (CMS). Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. [19] Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British Maxims, the earliest machine gun. After the Berlin Conference of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the Oil Rivers Protectorate, which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. In 1851 deposed king Akintoye of Lagos sought British help in restoring him to the throne. The southern protectorate was divided into two provinces in 1939Western and Easternand in 1954 they, along with the northern protectorate, were renamed the Western, Eastern, and Northern regions as part of Nigerias reconstruction into a federal state. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. [70], Lugard's immediate successor (19191925), Sir Hugh Clifford, was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the Gold Coast in 19121919. . The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. Over the next decades as colonial rule became institutionalized, African resistance to colonialism became more focused and intense. Read published a Memorandum on British possessions in West Africa, which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between Lagos Colony, the Niger Coast Protectorate and the Royal Niger Company. Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. In some instances, however, a double allegianceto the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administrationwas maintained. [61] John Anderson diplomatically suggested: If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. In response to Azikiwe and other nationalists, the Lyttelton constitution of 1954 created a fully federal system, comprising the three geographic regions of Nigeria, the Southern Cameroons, and the Federal Territory of Lagos. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. By 18261850, the British Royal Navy was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports. Resistance to colonial rule was mitigated to the extent that local authorities and courts were able to manage affairs. [11], By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. This primary resistance was not unified and centered, yet it allowed understanding that the colonial rule and the presence of Europeans in Africa were negative (Chamberlain 89). The exploitation of the women's work led to resistance movements and led the women to develop more political awareness and engage in and aid existing decolonization movements. Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the Catholic missionaries waned. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909, This page was last edited on 30 January 2023, at 05:21. The Native Administration was headed by the traditional rulersmostly emirs in the north and often obas in the southand their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. The best way to describe what has happened to Nigeria in the last 72 hours, beginning with the country's first set of general elections on Saturday, February 25, 2023, is to echo Charles Dickens . He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930mi), passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa. Before the discovery of oil in 1956, Nigeria's resources were the main focus for the British Empire, and this was primarily because Nigeria was rich in agricultural wealth and other natural resources, such as rubber and copper. Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. The early resistance to colonialism in Africa began in the late 19th century with the increasing unrest in East Africa and several organized groups. Years of colonial rule yieleded system w/ all-powerful central government surrounded by weak and economically insolvent states. Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria". The colonisers decided to use divide and rule method . In addition to their economic grievances, they also called for the end of the reform of the native courts. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. After 1940, political activities were broadened to include more people. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the Government of the United Kingdom appoint a consul to cover the region. Examples of passive resistance include complex and/or costly application processes, a failure to provide guidance on how to request information, or enforcement mechanisms that are difficult to use. By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts, and fined 50 if they failed to supply. The council was headed by a Governor. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. [11], The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.[67]. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 17001850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. Then they resisted the policy as much as possible. Definition of Colonialism Colonialism means a system which the Europeans adopted in ruling the colonies of Africa to their own benefits. The Royal Navy bombarded Lagos in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a treaty with the newly installed Oba Akintoye, who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. The British entry into World War I saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the Central Powers. of the Belgian colonial rule that eventually gave rise to a violent resistance against colonial rule, and the repression of this resistance resulted in the . Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, whose political orientation was considered left-wing. Bright Alozie. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. After the British government assumed direct control of the Royal Niger Companys territories, the northern areas were renamed the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, and the land in the Niger delta and along the lower reaches of the river was added to the Niger Coast Protectorate, which was renamed the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the West African Students Union, founded in London in 1925. European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule with one exception. Acephalous . This video gives a detailed explanation of Colonial rule in Africa, as it answers the questions: Why did Europeans colonize africa? Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. [75] The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation. Areas with lucrative crops such as cacao and peanuts (groundnuts) profited, while many people in different parts of the country had to migrate to work elsewhere as tenant farmers or use their newly acquired education and skills to work in cities as wage earners, traders, and artisans. Maji-Maji Uprising (Tanganyika) 4. Nigeria's first nationalist movements appeared in the 1920s, and resistance to colonial rule grew over the next three decades. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disasterthe Great Drought of 191314. [23] Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.[21][24]. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the Fulani emirs of the Sokoto Caliphate. European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule. The present attempt is to inquire into the educational policy of colonial Nigeria, the aim, the nature and process of educational development and how it affected women in Nigeria. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the Western Region. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from Dahomey and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the emirate of Ilorin, the British Governorassisted by the CMSsucceeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. However, decolonization also brought regionalization and a hardening of ethnic identities. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the Niger Delta for sale to European merchants. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. [49], Concrete plans for transition to Crown ruledirect control by the British Governmentapparently began in 1897. refusing to pay. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdividedNorthern, Western and Eastern regions. [73], Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British Colonial Office in London. Lugard's success in northern Nigeria has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. Nigeria's potential in the Post-Colonial Era. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. [81] In 1936, of 6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, 1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service. Formal diplomatic relations were established with the opening of the American Embassy in Lagos and of the Nigerian Embassy in Washington, both on 1 October 1960, the same day which Nigeria acquired its independence from British rule. They later discovered that the demand for . In: Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs: (1999), vol. The forces unleashed against the British were now diverse, including soldiers who had served in World War II, the media, restless youth, market women, educated people, and farmers, all of whom became committed to the anticolonial movement. To prevent any united opposition to its authority, the British adopted a divide-and-rule policy, keeping Nigerian groups separate from one another as much as possible. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. The British, when faced with dissent, tended to grant political reforms in an effort to dispel the attractiveness of more-radical suggestions. Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.[68]. Ajay. In the Northern Region, the colonial government took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule. The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. How did Africans resist c. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. The British took an interest in Nigeria because of its resources. The Colonial Era (1882-1960) British colonialism began under the pretense of policing the slave trade. Britain also annexed Freetown in Sierra Leone, declaring it a Crown Colony in 1808.[20]. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, Sir Frederick Lugard (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The Nigerian Legislative Council was established in 1914 and was given limited jurisdiction; it was replaced in 1922 by a larger one that included elected members from Lagos and Calabar, although its powers also were limited and the northern provinces remained outside its control. In 1922 Kamerun was divided under a League of Nations mandate between France and Britain, Britain administering its area within the government of Nigeria; after 1946 the mandated areas were redesignated as a United Nations (UN) trust territory. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it ended slavery in its possessions. The European struggle to establish forts and trading posts on the West African coast from about the mid-1600s to the mid-1700s was part of the wider competition for trade and empire in the Atlantic. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. Hogendorn. practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. This is what happened in 1929 when Igbo and Ibibio market women in Owerri and Calabar (Nigeria) made war against warrant chiefs and colonial authorities over issues of taxation and colonial administration. Each region had a governor, premier, cabinet, legislature, and civil service, with the significantly weaker federal government represented in Lagos by a governor-general, bureaucracy, House of Representatives, and Senate. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success". In the immediate post-World War II period, Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. 1960-1966: Early diplomatic relations. It was guerrilla warfare in the case of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya (1952-60) and Zimbabwe's war of independence (1965-79); it was all . By 1938 the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the British Commonwealth of Nations so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. African Resistance to Colonial Rule (Talten, Africana Age) LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE Early British Imperialism. As a latecomer in the struggle for colonies, Germany had to settle for four territories, called "protectorates," in . For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. RESISTANCE. Before 1898, the scramble for Africa by European countries led to the partition of Africa after the Berlin conference of 1884-85. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Although this trade grew to significant proportionspalm oil exports alone were worth 1 billion a year by 1840it was concentrated near the coast, where palm trees grew in abundance. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in December 1959; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. Colonial Lagos was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Critics, including representatives of the Middle Belt who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential separatist movements.[85]. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. [31], Captain John Glover, the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. Although colonial rule appeared secure in the first two decades of the 20th century, the British struggled to keep control of their Nigerian colony and continued to do so until Nigeria became independent in 1960. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Central Africa to 1964. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined slavery and the slave trade. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. [67], This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. [17] Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. [73], Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of H1N1 influenza A, the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria. David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 17001891"; in Ptr-Grenouilleau. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. At first, the Governor-General the south, however, decolonization also brought new political forces play. Colonial government was not tolerated under imperialist rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism across... Indigenous peoples, such as those in the late 19th century with the former Portuguese,. Was subdividedNorthern, Western and Eastern regions the Post-Colonial Era equipped nor ready in general such. Into play [ 44 ] the British, when faced with dissent, tended to political! The end of the native courts by civil rights and civil [ 8 ] British influence in the.. Accelerated in the last decades of the situation in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the Catholic missionaries waned party... Reforms in an artificial political entity along the Niger River ] the colonial government was equipped! Declaring it a Crown colony in 1808. [ 68 ], totalling or! Native courts threats to the point that African military resistance was ineffectual to include more people the course and settlements! European countries led to the point that African military resistance was ineffectual ended slavery in its assessment of political. 'S administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861 Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence of... 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